Biology for the IB Diploma Third edition
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Description
Contents
Reviews
Language
English
ISBN
9781398371651
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Contents
Introduction
How to use this book
Tools and Inquiry
A Unity and diversity
A1.1 Water
Water: the medium for life
Hydrogen bonds
Cohesion of water molecules and the consequences for organisms
Adhesion of water and the impacts for organisms
Solvent properties of water
Physical properties of water and the consequences for animals in aquatic habitats
Extraplanetary origin of water on Earth
The relationship between the search for extraterrestrial life and the presence of water
A1.2 Nucleic acids
DNA as the genetic material of all living organisms
Components of a nucleotide
The sugar–phosphate ‘backbone’ of DNA and RNA
Bases in each nucleic acid form the basis of a code
RNA polymers
The DNA double helix
Differences between DNA and RNA
Role of complementary base pairing
Diversity of possible DNA base sequences
Conservation of the genetic code
Directionality of RNA and DNA
Purine-to-pyrimidine bonding
Nucleosome structure
The Hershey and Chase DNA experiment
Chargaff’s data on the relative amounts of pyrimidine and purine bases
A2.1 Origins of cells (HL only)
Conditions on early Earth and the pre-biotic formation of carbon compounds
Cells as the smallest units of self-sustaining life
The spontaneous origin of cells
Evidence for the origin of carbon compounds
Spontaneous formation of vesicles
RNA as a presumed first genetic material
Evidence for a last universal common ancestor
Estimating the dates of the first living cells and LUCA
Evidence for the evolution of LUCA
A2.2 Cell structure
Introduction to cells
Microscopy skills
Developments in microscopy
Structures common to cells in all living organisms
Prokaryote cell structure
Eukaryote cell structure
Processes of life in unicellular organisms
Differences in eukaryotic cell structure between animals, fungi and plants
Atypical cell structure in eukaryotes
Cell types and structures viewed in light and electron micrographs
Drawing and annotating based on electron micrographs
Origin of eukaryotic cells by endosymbiosis
Cell differentiation and the development of specialized tissues in multicellular organisms
Evolution of multicellularity
A2.3 Viruses (HL only)
Introduction to viruses
Structural features common to viruses
Diversity of structure in viruses
Viral reproductive life cycles
Evidence for several origins of viruses from other organisms
Rapid evolution of viruses
A3.1 Diversity of organisms
Variation between organisms
What is a species?
The binomial system for naming organisms
The biological species concept
Difficulties distinguishing between a population and a species
The diversity in chromosome numbers of plant and animal species
Karyotyping and karyograms
Unity and diversity of genomes within species
The diversity of eukaryote genomes
Comparing genome sizes
Current and potential future uses of whole genome sequencing
The difficulties applying the biological species concept to asexually reproducing species and bacteria
Chromosome number within a species
Developing a dichotomous key
Identifying species from environmental DNA in a habitat using barcodes
A3.2 Classification and cladistics (HL only)
The need to classify organisms
Difficulties classifying organisms into the traditional hierarchy of taxa
Advantages of classification corresponding to evolutionary relationships
Clades
Sequence differences as the basis for clades divergence
The construction of cladograms
Investigating whether the classification of groups corresponds to evolutionary relationships
Classification of all organisms into three domains
A4.1 Evolution and speciation
Evolution as change in the heritable characteristics of a population
Evidence for evolution
Convergent evolution
Speciation by splitting of pre-existing species
Roles of reproductive isolation and differential selection in speciation
Differences and similarities between sympatric and allopatric speciation
Adaptive radiation as a source of biodiversity
Barriers to hybridization and sterility of interspecific hybrids
Abrupt speciation in plants by hybridization and polyploidy
A4.2 Conservation of biodiversity
Biodiversity as the variety of life in all its forms, levels and combinations
Comparisons between current number of species on Earth and past levels of biodiversity
Causes of anthropogenic species extinction
Causes of ecosystem loss
Evidence for a biodiversity crisis
Causes of the current biodiversity crisis
Approaches to conservation of biodiversity
EDGE of Existence programme
B Form and function
B1.1 Carbohydrates and lipids
Chemical properties of the carbon atom
Condensation and hydrolysis reactions
Form and function of monosaccharides
Polysaccharides and energy storage
The structure of cellulose
The role of glycoproteins in cell–cell recognition
Hydrophobic properties of lipids
Formation of triglycerides and phospholipids by condensation reactions
Differences between saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids
Triglycerides in adipose tissue
Formation of phospholipid bilayers
Ability of non-polar steroids to pass through the phospholipid bilayer
B1.2 Proteins
Amino acid generalized structure
Forming dipeptides and longer chains of amino acids
Dietary requirements for amino acids
The infinite variety of possible peptide chains
Effects of pH and temperature on protein structure
Chemical diversity in the R-groups of amino acids
Protein structure
Relationship of form and function in globular and fibrous proteins
B2.1 Membranes and membrane transport
The basis of cell membranes – lipid bilayers
Lipid bilayers as barriers
Simple diffusion across membranes
Integral and peripheral proteins in membranes
Osmosis
Facilitated diffusion
Active transport
Selectivity in membrane permeability
Structure and function of glycoproteins and glycolipids
Fluid mosaic model of membrane structure
Relationships between fatty acid composition of lipid bilayers and their fluidity
Cholesterol and membrane fluidity in animal cells
Membrane fluidity and the fusion and formation of vesicles
Gated ion channels in neurons
Exchange transporters
Indirect active transport
Adhesion of cells to form tissues
B2.2 Organelles and compartmentalization
Organelles
Advantages of separating the nucleus and cytoplasm
Advantages of compartmentalization in the cytoplasm of cells
Adaptations of the mitochondrion
Adaptations of the chloroplast
Functional benefits of the nucleus double membrane
Structure and function of free ribosomes and of the RER
Structure and function of the Golgi apparatus
Structure and function of cell vesicles
B2.3 Cell specialization
Production of unspecialized cells following fertilization
Properties of stem cells
Stem cell niches in adult humans
Totipotent pluripotent and multipotent stem cells
Cell size as an aspect of specialization
Surface area-to-volume ratios and the constraints on cell size
Adaptations to increase surface area-to-volume ratios of cells
Adaptations of type I and type II pneumocytes in alveoli
Adaptations of cardiac muscle cells and striated muscle fibres
Adaptations of sperm and egg cells
B3.1 Gas exchange
Gas exchange as a vital function in all organisms
Properties of gas-exchange surfaces
Maintenance of concentration gradients at exchange surfaces in animals
Gas exchange in mammals
Ventilation of the lungs
Measurement of lung volumes
Gas exchange in plants
Transpiration
Stomatal density
Haemoglobin and the transport of oxygen
B3.2 Transport
An introduction to the blood system
Adaptations of capillaries
Structure of arteries and veins
Adaptations of arteries for the transport of blood away from the heart
Measurement of pulse rates
Adaptations of veins for the return of blood to the heart
Causes and consequences of occlusion of the coronary arteries
Transport of water from roots to leaves during transpiration
Adaptations of xylem vessels for transport of water
Distribution of tissues in a transverse section of the stem of a dicotyledonous plant
Distribution of tissues in a transverse section of a dicotyledonous root
Tissue fluid
Exchange of substances between tissue fluid and cells in tissues
Drainage of excess tissue fluid into lymph ducts
Differences between the single circulation of bony fish and the double circulation of mammals
Adaptations of the mammalian heart for delivering blood to the arteries
Stages in the cardiac cycle
Generation of root pressure in xylem vessels
Adaptations of phloem sieve tubes and companion cells for translocation of sap
B3.3 Muscle and motility (HL only)
Adaptations for movement in living organisms
Sliding filament model of muscle contraction
Role of the protein titin and antagonistic muscles in muscle relaxation
Structure and function of motor units in skeletal muscle
Roles of skeletons as anchorage for muscles and as levers
Movement at a synovial joint
Range of motion of a joint
Internal and external intercostal muscles as an example of antagonistic muscle action
Reasons for locomotion
Adaptations for swimming in marine mammals
B4.1 Adaptation to environment
Habitats
Adaptations of organisms to the abiotic environment of their habitat
Abiotic variables affecting species distribution
Range of tolerance of a limiting factor
Conditions required for coral reef formation
Abiotic factors as the determinants of terrestrial biome distribution
Biomes
Adaptations to life in hot deserts and tropical rainforest
B4.2 Ecological niches
Ecological niches
Obligate anaerobes, facultative anaerobes and obligate aerobes
Different modes of nutrition
Diversity of nutrition in archaea
Relationship between dentition and diet
Adaptations of herbivores for feeding on plants and of plants for resisting herbivory
Adaptations of predators and prey
Adaptations of plants for harvesting light
Fundamental and realized niches
Competitive exclusion and the uniqueness of ecological niches
C Interaction and interdependence
C1.1 Enzymes and metabolism
Enzymes as catalysts
Role of enzymes in metabolism
Anabolic and catabolic reactions
Enzymes as globular proteins with an active site for catalysis
Induced-fit binding
The role of molecular motion and collisions in enzyme catalysis
Relationships between the structure of the active site, enzyme–substrate specificity and denaturation
Effects of temperature, pH and substrate concentration on rate of enzyme activity
Measurements in enzyme-catalysed reactions
Effect of enzymes on activation energy
Intracellular and extracellular enzyme-catalysed reactions
Generation of heat energy by the reactions of metabolism
Cyclical and linear pathways in metabolism
Enzyme inhibitors
C1.2 Cell respiration
ATP as the molecule that distributes energy within cells
Life processes within cells that ATP supplies with energy
Energy transfers during interconversions between ATP and ADP
Cell respiration as a system for producing ATP within the cell
Differences between anaerobic and aerobic cell respiration in humans
Variables affecting the rate of cell respiration
The role of NAD as a carrier of hydrogen
Glycolysis
Conversion of pyruvate to lactate
Anaerobic cell respiration in yeast and its use in brewing and baking
The link reaction in aerobic cell respiration
The Krebs cycle
The electron transport chain
Generation of a proton gradient by flow of electrons along the electron transport chain
Chemiosmosis and the synthesis of ATP in the mitochondrion
Role of oxygen as terminal electron acceptor in aerobic cell respiration
Differences between lipids and carbohydrates as respiratory substrates
C1.3 Photosynthesis
The transformation of light energy to chemical energy in photosynthesis
Conversion of carbon dioxide to glucose in photosynthesis using hydrogen obtained by splitting water
Oxygen as a by-product of photosynthesis in plants, algae and cyanobacteria
Separation and identification of photosynthetic pigments by chromatography
Absorption of specific wavelengths of light by photosynthetic pigments
Similarities and differences of absorption and action spectra
Investigating the effects of limiting factors on the rate of photosynthesis
Carbon dioxide enrichment experiments
The light-dependent and light-independent reactions of photosynthesis: introduction
The light-dependent reactions
Light-independent reactions
Interdependence of the light-dependent and light-independent reactions
C2.1 Chemical signalling (HL only)
Receptors
Cell signalling by bacteria in quorum sensing
Signalling chemicals in animals
Chemical diversity of hormones and neurotransmitters
Localized and distant effects of signalling molecules
Differences between transmembrane and intracellular receptors
Initiation of signal transduction pathways by receptors
Transmembrane receptors for neurotransmitters and changes to membrane potential
Transmembrane receptors that activate G protein
Mechanism of action of epinephrine (adrenaline) receptors
Transmembrane receptors with tyrosine kinase activity
Intracellular receptors that affect gene expression
Effects of the hormones oestradiol and progesterone on target cells
Regulation of cell signalling pathways by positive and negative feedback
C2.2 Neural signalling
Neurons
The resting potential
Nerve impulses as action potential
Variation in the speed of nerve impulses
Synapses
Steps of synapse transmission
Depolarization and repolarization during action potentials
Propagation of an action potential as a result of local currents
Oscilloscope traces showing resting potentials and action potentials
Saltatory conduction
Effects of exogenous chemicals on synaptic transmission
Inhibitory neurotransmitters and generation of inhibitory postsynaptic potentials
Summation
Perception of pain by neurons with free nerve endings in the skin
Consciousness
C3.1 Integration of body systems
System integration
Integration in multicellular organisms
Integration of organs in animal bodies
Integration by the central nervous system
Nerves as bundles of nerve fibres of both sensory and motor neurons
Pain reflex arcs
Role of the cerebellum
Modulation of sleep patterns by melatonin
Epinephrine (adrenaline) secretion by the adrenal glands
Control of the endocrine system by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland
Control of heart rate using sensory input from baroreceptors and chemoreceptors
Feedback control of ventilation rate following sensory input from chemoreceptors
Control of peristalsis in the digestive system by the central nervous system and enteric nervous system
Observations of tropic responses in seedlings
Positive phototropism
Phytohormones
The role of auxin
Interactions between auxin and cytokinin
Positive feedback in fruit ripening and ethylene production
C3.2 Defence against disease
Pathogens as the cause of infectious diseases
Skin and mucous membranes as a primary defence
Sealing of cuts in skin by blood clotting
Differences between the innate immune system and the adaptive immune system
Infection control by phagocytes
Lymphocytes – the adaptive immune system
Antigens
Steps to the immune response
HIV
Antibiotics
Evolution of antibiotic resistance
Zoonoses
Vaccines and immunization
Herd immunity and the prevention of epidemics
Evaluation of data related to the COVID-19 pandemic
C4.1 Populations and communities
Populations
Estimation of population size by random sampling
Estimating population size for sessile organisms
Estimating population size for motile organisms
Carrying capacity and competition for limited resources
Negative feedback control of population size by density-dependent factors
Population growth curves
Modelling of the sigmoid population growth curve
Communities in ecosystems
Competition versus cooperation in intraspecific relationships
Interspecific relationships within communities
Mutualism as an interspecific relationship that benefits both species
Resource competition between endemic and invasive species
Tests for interspecific competition
Using the chi-squared test for association between two species
Predator–prey relationships
Top-down and bottom-up control of populations in communities
Allelopathy and secretion of antibiotics
C4.2 Transfers of energy and matter
Ecosystems as open systems
Sunlight as the principal source of energy that sustains most ecosystems
Flow of chemical energy through food chains
Food chains and food webs represent feeding relationships in a community
Supply of energy to decomposers as carbon compounds in dead organic matter
Autotrophs
Photoautotrophs and chemoautotrophs
Heterotrophs
Release of energy in both autotrophs and heterotrophs
Classification of organisms into trophic levels
Construction of energy pyramids
Reductions in energy availability in food chains
Primary production
Secondary production
The carbon cycle
Analysis of the Keeling curve in terms of photosynthesis, respiration and combustion
Atmospheric oxygen and carbon dioxide
Recycling of chemical elements
D Continuity and change
D1.1 DNA replication
DNA replication
Semi-conservative nature of DNA replication
Role of helicase and DNA polymerase in DNA replication
PCR and gel electrophoresis as tools for amplifying and separating DNA
Applications of PCR and gel electrophoresis
Directionality of DNA polymerases
Differences between replication on the leading strand and the lagging strand
DNA proofreading
D1.2 Protein synthesis
Transcription
Role of hydrogen bonding and complementary base pairing in transcription
Stability of DNA templates
Transcription as a process required for the expression of genes
Translation as the synthesis of polypeptides from mRNA
Roles of mRNA, ribosomes and tRNA in translation
Complementary base pairing between tRNA and mRNA
Features of the genetic code
Using the genetic code expressed as a table of mRNA codons
The growing polypeptide chain
Mutations that change protein structure
Directionality of transcription and translation
Initiation of transcription at the promoter
Non-coding sequences in DNA do not code for polypeptides
Post-transcriptional modification in eukaryotic cells
Alternative splicing
Initiation of translation
Modification of polypeptides into their functional state
Recycling of amino acids by proteasomes
D1.3 Mutation and gene editing
Gene mutations as structural changes to genes at the molecular level
Consequences of base substitutions
Consequences of insertions and deletions
Causes of gene mutation
Randomness in mutation
Consequences of mutation in germ cells and somatic cells
Mutation as a source of genetic variation
Gene knockout
Use of the CRISPR sequences and the enzyme Cas9 in gene editing
Hypotheses for conserved or highly conserved sequences in genes
D2.1 Cell and nuclear division
Generation of new cells in living organisms by cell division
Cytokinesis
Equal and unequal cytokinesis
Roles of mitosis and meiosis in eukaryotes
DNA replication as a prerequisite for both mitosis and meiosis
Condensation and movement of chromosomes as shared features of mitosis and meiosis
Phases of mitosis
Identification of phases of mitosis
Meiosis as a reduction division
Down syndrome and non-disjunction
Cell proliferation for growth, cell replacement and tissue repair
Phases of the cell cycle
Cell growth during interphase
Control of the cell cycle using cyclins
Consequences of mutations in genes that control the cell cycle
Differences between tumours in rates of cell division and growth
D2.2 Gene expression (HL only)
Gene expression and its effect on the phenotype
Regulation of transcription by proteins that bind to specific base sequences in DNA
Control of the degradation of mRNA as a means of regulating translation
Epigenesis
Differences between the genome, transcriptome and proteome of individual cells
Methylation of the promoter and histones in nucleosomes
Epigenetic inheritance through heritable changes to gene expression
Examples of environmental effects on gene expression in cells and organisms
Consequences of removal of most but not all epigenetic tags from the human ovum and sperm
Monozygotic twin studies
External factors impacting the pattern of gene expression
D2.3 Water potential
Solvation with water as the solvent
Water movement from less concentrated to more concentrated solutions
Water movement by osmosis into or out of cells
Changes in plant tissue bathed in hypotonic and hypertonic solutions
Effects of water movement on cells that lack a cell wall
Effects of water movement on cells with a cell wall
Medical applications of isotonic solutions
Water potential as the potential energy of water per unit volume
Movement of water from higher to lower water potential
Contributions of solute potential and pressure potential to the water potential of cells with walls
Water potential and water movements in plant tissue
D3.1 Reproduction
Differences between sexual and asexual reproduction
Role of meiosis and fusion of gametes in the sexual life cycle
Differences between male and female sexes in sexual reproduction
Anatomy of the human male and female reproductive systems
Changes during the ovarian and uterine cycles and their hormonal regulation
Fertilization in humans
Use of hormones in IVF treatment
Sexual reproduction in flowering plants
Features of an insect-pollinated flower
Methods of promoting cross-pollination
Self-incompatibility mechanisms to increase genetic variation within a species
Dispersal and germination of seeds
Control of the developmental changes of puberty by GnRH and steroid sex hormones
Spermatogenesis and oogenesis in humans
Mechanisms to prevent polyspermy
Development of a blastocyst and implantation in the endometrium
Pregnancy testing by detection of human chorionic gonadotropin secretion
Role of the placenta in foetal development inside the uterus
Hormonal control of pregnancy and childbirth
Hormone replacement therapy and the risk of coronary heart disease
D3.2 Inheritance
Production of gametes as the means of inheritance
Methods for conducting genetic crosses in flowering plants
Genotype
Phenotype
Phenylketonuria as an example of a human disease due to a recessive allele
Single-nucleotide polymorphisms and multiple alleles in gene pools
ABO blood groups as an example of multiple alleles
Incomplete dominance and codominance
Sex determination in humans and inheritance of genes on sex chromosomes
Haemophilia as an example of a sex-linked genetic disorder
Pedigree charts to deduce patterns of inheritance of genetic disorders
Continuous variation due to polygenic inheritance and/or environmental factors
Box-and-whisker plots to represent data for a continuous variable
Segregation and independent assortment of unlinked genes in meiosis
Dihybrid crosses involving pairs of unlinked autosomal genes
Loci of human genes and their polypeptide products
Autosomal gene linkage
Recombinants in crosses involving two linked or unlinked genes
Use of a chi-squared test on data from dihybrid crosses
D3.3 Homeostasis
Homeostasis
Negative feedback loops in homeostasis
Regulation of blood glucose as an example of the role of hormones in homeostasis
Physiological changes that form the basis of type 1 and type 2 diabetes
Thermoregulation as an example of negative feedback control
Thermoregulation by physiological and behavioural means
Role of the kidney in osmoregulation and excretion
Role of the glomerulus, Bowman’s capsule and proximal convoluted tubule in excretion
Role of the loop of Henle
Osmoregulation by water reabsorption in the collecting ducts
Changes in blood supply to organs in response to changes in activity
D4.1 Natural selection
Natural selection as the mechanism driving evolutionary change
The roles of mutation and sexual reproduction in generating variation
Overproduction of offspring and competition for resources
Abiotic factors as selection pressures
Differences between individuals as the basis for natural selection
Requirement that traits are heritable for evolutionary change to occur
Sexual selection as a selection pressure in animal species
Modelling of sexual and natural selection based on experimental control of selection pressures
Concept of the gene pool
Allele frequencies of geographically isolated populations
Changes in allele frequency in the gene pool as a consequence of natural selection
Differences between directional, disruptive and stabilizing selection
Hardy–Weinberg equation and calculations of allele or genotype frequencies
Artificial selection by deliberate choice of traits
D4.2 Stability and change
Stability as a property of natural ecosystems
Requirements for stability in ecosystems
Deforestation of Amazon rainforest as an example of a possible tipping point in ecosystem stability
Use of a model to investigate the effect of variables on ecosystem stability
Role of keystone species in the stability of ecosystems
Assessing sustainability of resource harvesting from natural ecosystems
Factors affecting the sustainability of agriculture
Eutrophication of aquatic and marine ecosystems due to leaching
Biomagnification of pollutants in natural ecosystems
Effects of microplastic and macroplastic pollution of the oceans
Restoration of natural processes in ecosystems by rewilding
Ecological succession and its causes
Changes occurring during primary succession
Cyclical succession in ecosystems
Climax communities and arrested succession
D4.3 Climate change
Anthropogenic causes of climate change
Positive feedback cycles in global warming
Change from net carbon accumulation to net loss in boreal forests as an example of a tipping point
Melting of landfast ice and sea ice as examples of polar habitat change
Changes in ocean currents
Poleward and upslope range shifts of temperate species
Threats to coral reefs as an example of potential ecosystem collapse
Afforestation, forest regeneration and restoration of peat-forming wetlands as approaches to carbon sequestration
Phenology as research into the timing of biological events
Disruption to the synchrony of phenological events by climate change
Increases to the number of insect life cycles within a year due to climate change
Evolution as a consequence of climate change
Acknowledgements
Index
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