Psychology: A Study Of Mental Life
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PSYCHOLOGY
A STUDY OF MENTAL LIFE
PREFACE
CONTENTS
PSYCHOLOGY
CHAPTER I WHAT PSYCHOLOGY IS AND DOES
THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF THE SCIENCE, ITS PROBLEMS AND ITS METHODS
Varieties of Psychology
Differential psychology.
Applied psychology.
General psychology.
Psychology as Related to Other Sciences
Psychology and sociology.
Psychology and biology.
Psychology and physiology.
The Science of Consciousness
The Science of Behavior
Introspection
Objective Observation
General Laws of Psychological Investigation.
Summary and Attempt at a Definition
EXERCISES
REFERENCES
CHAPTER II REACTIONS
REFLEXES AND OTHER ELEMENTARY FORMS OF REACTION, AND HOW THE NERVES OPERATE IN CARRYING THEM OUT
The Reaction Time Experiment
Reflex Action
The Nerves in Reflex Action
Internal Construction of the Nerves and Nerve Centers
The Synapse
COÖRDINATION
Reactions in General
EXERCISES
REFERENCES
CHAPTER III REACTIONS OF DIFFERENT LEVELS
HOW SENSATIONS, PERCEPTIONS AND THOUGHTS MAY BE CONSIDERED AS FORMS OF INNER RESPONSE, AND HOW THESE HIGHER REACTIONS ARE RELATED IN THE NERVOUS SYSTEM TO THE SIMPLER RESPONSES OF THE REFLEX LEVEL.
Different Sorts of Stimuli
The Motor Centers, Lower and Higher
How The Brain Produces Muscular Movements
Facilitation and Inhibition
Super-motor Centers in the Cortex
Speech Centers
The Auditory Centers
The Visual Centers
Cortical Centers for the Other Senses
Lower Sensory Centers
The Cerebellum
Different Levels of Reaction
EXERCISES
REFERENCES
CHAPTER IV TENDENCIES TO REACTION
HOW MOTIVES INFLUENCE BEHAVIOR, AND HOW THEY FIT INTO A PSYCHOLOGY WHICH SEEKS TO ANALYZE BEHAVIOR INTO REACTIONS.
Purposive Behavior
Organic States that Influence Behavior
Preparation for Action
Preparatory Reactions
What the Preparatory Reactions Accomplish
What a Tendency Is, in Terms of Nerve Action
Motives
EXERCISES
REFERENCES
CHAPTER V NATIVE AND ACQUIRED TRAITS
SOME RESPONSES ARE PROVIDED BY NATURE, WHILE OTHERS HAVE TO BE LEARNED BY EXPERIENCE
The Source of Native Traits
Reactions Appearing at Birth Must Be Native
Reactions That Cannot Be Learned Must Be Native
Experimental Detection of Native Reactions
Is Walking Native or Acquired?
Universality as a Criterion of Native Reactions
Some Native Traits Are Far from Being Universal
Why Acquired Traits Differ from One Individual to Another
What Mental Traits Are Native?
EXERCISES
REFERENCES
CHAPTER VI INSTINCT
CONDUCT AS DETERMINED BY NATIVE REACTION-TENDENCIES
The Difference Between an Instinct and a Reflex
An Instinct Is a Native Reaction-Tendency
Fully and Partially Organized Instincts
Instincts Are Not Ancestral Habits
Instincts Not Necessarily Useful in the Struggle for Existence
The So-called Instincts of Self-preservation and of Reproduction
EXERCISES
REFERENCES
CHAPTER VII EMOTION
VARIOUS ORGANIC STATES, AND THE CONSCIOUS STATES THAT GO WITH THEM
Organic States That Are Not Usually Classed as Emotions
How These Organic States Differ from Regular Emotions
The Organic State in Anger
Glandular Responses During Emotion
The Nerves Concerned in Internal Emotional Response
The Emotional State as a Preparatory Reaction
"Expressive Movements," Another Sort of Preparatory Reactions
Do Sensations of These Various Preparatory Reactions Constitute the Conscious State of Emotion?
The James-Lange Theory of the Emotions
Emotion and Impulse
Emotion Sometimes Generates Impulse
Emotion and Instinct
The Higher Emotions
EXERCISES
REFERENCES
CHAPTER VIII INVENTORY OF HUMAN INSTINCTS AND PRIMARY EMOTIONS
A LIST OF THE NATIVE STOCK OF TENDENCIES AND OF THE EMOTIONS THAT SOMETIMES GO WITH THEM.
Classification
Responses to Organic Needs
Instincts connected with hunger.
Breathing and air-getting.
Responses to heat and cold.
Shrinking from injury.
Crying.
Fatigue, rest and sleep.
Instinctive Responses to Other Persons
The herd instinct or gregarious instinct.
The mating instinct.
The parental or mothering instinct.
The Play Instincts
Playful activity.
Locomotion.
Vocalization.
Manipulation.
Exploration or curiosity.
Tendencies running counter to exploration and manipulation.
Laughter.
Fighting.
Self-assertion.
Submission.
EXERCISES
REFERENCES
CHAPTER IX THE FEELINGS
PLEASANTNESS AND UNPLEASANTNESS, AND OTHER STATES OF FEELINGS AND THEIR INFLUENCE UPON BEHAVIOR
Pleasantness and Unpleasantness Are Simple Feelings
Feeling-Tone of Sensations
Theories of Feelings
Sources of Pleasantness and Unpleasantness
Primary Likes and Dislikes
Other Proposed Elementary Feelings
Wundt's tri-dimensional theory of feeling.
EXERCISES
REFERENCES
CHAPTER X SENSATION
AN INVENTORY OF THE ELEMENTARY SENSATIONS OF THE DIFFERENT SENSES
The Sense Organs
Accessory sense-apparatus.
Analysis of Sensations
The Skin Senses
The Sense of Taste
The Sense of Smell
Organic Sensation
The Sense of Sight
Simpler Forms of the Color Sense
Visual Sensations as Related to the Stimulus
Color Mixing
What Are the Elementary Visual Sensations?
Theories of Color Vision
Adaptation
Rod and Cone Vision
After-Images
Contrast
The Sense of Hearing
Comparison of Sight and Hearing
Theory of Hearing
Senses of Bodily Movement
EXERCISES
REFERENCES
CHAPTER XI ATTENTION
HOW WE ATTEND, TO WHAT, AND WITH WHAT RESULTS
The Stimulus, or What Attracts Attention
The Motor Reaction in Attention
The Shifting of Attention
Laws of Attention and Laws of Reaction in General
Sustained Attention
Distraction
Doing Two Things at Once
The Span of Attention
Summary of the Laws of Attention
Attention and Degree of Consciousness
The Management of Attention
Theory of Attention
EXERCISES
REFERENCES
CHAPTER XII INTELLIGENCE
HOW INTELLIGENCE IS MEASURED, WHAT IT CONSISTS IN AND EVIDENCE OF ITS BEING LARGELY A MATTER OF HEREDITY
Intelligence Tests
Performance Tests
Group Testing
Some Results of the Intelligence Tests
Limitations of the Intelligence Tests
The Correlation of Abilities
General Factors in Intelligence
Special Aptitudes
Heredity of Intelligence and of Special Aptitudes
Intelligence and the Brain
EXERCISES
REFERENCES
CHAPTER XIII LEARNING AND HABIT FORMATION
THE DEPENDENCE OF ACQUIRED REACTIONS UPON INSTINCT AND REFLEX ACTION, AND THE MODIFICATION OF NATIVE REACTIONS BY EXPERIENCE AND TRAINING.
Acquired Reactions Are Modified Native Reactions
Acquired Tendencies
Animal Learning
The negative adaptation experiment.
The conditioned reflex experiment.
The signal experiment.
The maze experiment.
The puzzle-box experiment.
Summary of Animal Learning
Human Learning
Human Compared With Animal Learning
Learning by Observation
The Learning of Complex Practical Performances
Higher Units and Overlapping
Moderate Skill Acquired in the Ordinary Day's Work
Habit
EXERCISES
REFERENCES
CHAPTER XIV MEMORY
HOW WE MEMORIZE AND REMEMBER, AND IN WHAT RESPECTS MEMORY CAN BE MANAGED AND IMPROVED
The Process of Memorizing
Short-circuiting.
Economy in Memorizing
The value of recitation in memorizing.
Spaced and unspaced repetition.
Whole versus part learning.
Unintentional Learning
Retention
Recall
Difficulties in recall.
Helps in recall.
Recognition
Recognition described in terms of stimulus and response.
Memory Training
EXERCISES
REFERENCES
CHAPTER XV ASSOCIATION AND MENTAL IMAGERY
SOMETHING ABOUT THINKING AS RELATED TO MEMORY
What Can Be Recalled
Memory Images
Limitations of Imagery
The Question of Non-Sensory Recall
Hallucinations
Synesthesia.
Free Association
Controlled Association
Examples of Controlled Association
EXERCISES
REFERENCES
CHAPTER XVI THE LAWS OF ASSOCIATION
AN ATTEMPT TO REDUCE THE LEARNING PROCESS TO ITS ELEMENTS
The Law of Exercise
The Law of Effect
Limitations of the Law of Exercise
Association by Similarity
Association by Contiguity
The Law of Combination
I. SUBSTITUTE STIMULUS EXPLAINED BY THE LAW OF COMBINATION
A. Substitute Stimulus Originally Unnecessary for Arousing the Response
1. Conditioned reflex.
2. Learning the names of things.
B. Substitute Stimulus Originally an Essential Member Of A Team of Stimuli That Aroused the Response
1. Observed grouping or relationship.
2. Response by analogy and association by similarity.
II. SUBSTITUTE RESPONSE EXPLAINED BY THE LAW OF COMBINATION
C. Substitute Response, but not in Itself a New Response
1. Trial and error.
2. Learning to balance on a bicycle.
D. Substitute Response, the Response Being a Higher Motor Unit
1. The brake and clutch combination in driving an automobile.
2. The word-habit in typewriting
The Law of Combination in Recall
The Laws of Learning in Terms of the Neurone
EXERCISES
REFERENCES
CHAPTER XVII PERCEPTION
MENTAL LIFE CONSISTS LARGELY IN THE DISCOVERY OF FACTS NEW TO THE INDIVIDUAL, AND IN THE RE-DISCOVERY OF FACTS PREVIOUSLY OBSERVED
Some Definitions
The Difference Between Perception and Sensation
Perception and Image
Perception and Motor Reaction
What Sort of Response, Then, Is Perception?
Practised Perception
Corrected Perception
Sensory Data Serving as Signs of Various Sorts of Fact
The Perception of Space
Esthetic Perception
Social Perception
Errors of Perception
Illusions
1. Illusions due to peculiarities of the sense organs.
2. Illusions due to preoccupation or mental set.
3. Illusions of the response-by-analogy type.
4. Illusions due to imperfect isolation of the fact to be perceived.
The Müller-Lyer Illusion
EXERCISES
REFERENCES
CHAPTER XVIII REASONING
THE PROCESS OF MENTAL, AS DISTINGUISHED FROM MOTOR EXPLORATION
Reasoning Culminates in Inference
Varieties of Reasoning
1. Reasoning out the solution of a practical problem.
2. Rationalization or self-justification.
3. Explanation.
4. Application.
5. Doubt.
6. Verification.
Deductive and Inductive Reasoning
Psychology and Logic
EXERCISES
REFERENCES
CHAPTER XIX IMAGINATION
MENTAL AS DISTINGUISHED FROM MOTOR MANIPULATION
Beginnings of Imagination in the Child
Preliminary Definition of Imagination
Play
The Play Motives
Empathy
Day Dreams
Worry
Dreams
Freud's Theory of Dreams
Autistic Thinking
Invention and Criticism
The Enjoyment of Imaginative Art
The appeal of art is partly emotional.
Art makes also an intellectual appeal.
Empathy in art enjoyment.
The Psychology of Inventive Production
Imagination Considered in General
EXERCISES
REFERENCES
CHAPTER XX WILL
PLANNED ACTION, ACTION IN SPITE OF INTERNAL CONFLICT, AND ACTION AGAINST EXTERNAL OBSTRUCTION
Voluntary and Involuntary Action
Development of Voluntary Control
Ideomotor Action
Conflict and Decision
Obstruction and Effort
Thought and Action
Securing Action
The Influence of Suggestion
EXERCISES
REFERENCES
CHAPTER XXI PERSONALITY
THE INDIVIDUAL AS A WHOLE, INTEGRATED OR PARTIALLY DISSOCIATED
Factors in Personality
The Self
Integration and Disintegration of the Personality
The Unconscious, or, the Subconscious Mind
Unconscious Wishes and Motives
EXERCISES
REFERENCES
INDEX
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