Cambridge IGCSE & O Level Complete Geography: Student Book Third Edition
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Description
Contents
Reviews
Language
English
ISBN
9781382076357
Cover Page
Title page
Copyright page
Contents
Introduction
A note about terms
1 Changing river environments
Rivers and drainage basins
The river channel
The drainage basin
The Bradshaw Model
The hydrological cycle (water cycle)
From rain to river
River processes: the work of a river
Factors affecting the work of a river
Why deposition happens
River landforms
The upper course of a river
Waterfalls and gorges
Interlocking spurs
The middle and lower courses of a river
Meanders and oxbow lakes
Floodplains and levees
Deltas
Opportunities, hazards, and management of rivers
Why do people live close to rivers?
Hazards faced by people who live near rivers
Why do rivers flood?
Factors affecting discharge
Hydrographs
Flood impacts
How to manage flooding
How sustainable are the methods to manage river flooding?
River pollution
Human causes of river pollution
The impacts of river pollution
Agriculture
Sewage
Industry
Managing river pollution
Sewage treatment
Regulation
Land management systems
How sustainable are the methods to manage river pollution?
Exam-style practice question
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2 Changing coastal environments
Introducing the coast
Explaining waves
Physical processes that shape the coast
Types of waves
Constructive and destructive waves
Wave refraction
Coastal erosion
Coastal transportation
Longshore drift
Coastal deposition
Landforms of coastal erosion
Cliffs and wave-cut platforms
Headlands and bays
Caves, arches, stacks, and stumps
Landforms of coastal deposition
Beaches
Beach profiles
Beach shapes in plan
Spits and bars
Coastal sand dunes
Discordant and concordant coastlines
Discordant coastlines
Concordant coastlines
Opportunities and hazards of living near the coast
Opportunities of living near the coast
Opportunities of coastal lowlands for city development
Hazards of living near coasts
Tropical storms
The distribution of tropical storms
The impacts of tropical storms
A comparison of the impacts of two tropical storms
Coral reefs
Global distribution
Conditions for coral reef to thrive
Types of coral reef
Why are coral reefs important?
Threats to coral reefs
Enhanced global warming
Pollution
Physical damage
Protecting coral reefs
Australia’s Great Barrier Reef
The importance of the Great Barrier Reef
Threats to the Great Barrier Reef
Protection and management
Mangroves
Global distribution
The importance of mangroves
Threats to mangroves
Exam-style practice question
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3 Changing ecosystems
Abiotic elements of Antarctic ecosystem
Relief and ground surface
The location of Antarctica
The characteristics of the Antarctic climate
Why is it so cold in Antarctica?
The influence of latitude
The influence of the angle of the Sun’s rays
The influence of the polar high
The influence of altitude
The influence of warmer seas
Precipitation
Biotic elements of the Antarctic ecosystem
Antarctic environments
The interior zone
The coastal maritime zone
The seasonal ice zone
The open ocean zone
The food web of the Southern Ocean
Interrelationships between abiotic and biotic factors
How fauna and flora adapt to survive
The human impact
Management of the Antarctic ecosystem
The tropical rainforest ecosystem
The global distribution of tropical rainforests
Characteristics of the equatorial climate
The influence of latitude on temperature
The influence of clouds on temperature
Reasons for Singapore’s high rainfall
The characteristics of the tropical rainforest ecosystem
The relationship between vegetation and climate
Relationships between abiotic and biotic factors in the tropical rainforest ecosystem
The relationship between vegetation and soil
How animals adapt in the tropical rainforest ecosystem
Forest floor (ground layer)
Under-canopy (understory)
Main canopy
Emergent layer
Energy flows, food chains, and food webs
Keeping tropical rainforests as a valuable natural environment
Soils
Water quality
Climate
The value of tropical rainforests to humans
Threats to tropical rainforest ecosystems and how they can be managed
Exam-style practice question
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4 Tectonic hazards
The structure of the Earth
Crust
Mantle
Outer core
Inner core
Lithosphere
Tectonic plates
A scientific revolution
What is a plate?
Why do the plates move?
Plate boundaries
Convergent (destructive) plate margins
Convergent (collision) plate margins
Divergent (constructive) plate margins
Conservative (transform) plate margins
Earthquakes and volcanoes
Locations of earthquakes and volcanoes
What causes earthquakes?
What causes volcanoes?
What comes out of a volcano?
Gases
Liquids
Solids
Types of volcano
Shield volcanoes
Strato-volcano (composite cone)
Cinder cone
Active, dormant, or extinct?
The parts of a volcano
The volcanic explosivity index (VEI)
Volcanic hazards
Impacts of tectonic hazards
Why do people live in areas at risk from volcanic eruptions?
Why do people live in areas at risk from earthquakes?
What impacts do earthquakes have?
How are earthquakes measured?
Mercalli scale
Richter scale
Moment magnitude scale
Managing the impacts of tectonic hazards
Predicting tectonic events
Planning for tectonic events
Responding to tectonic events
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5 Climate change
What is the evidence of climate change?
The rise in global temperatures
Evidence from ice cores
Changes in positions of sea ice
Written evidence and paintings
Reasons for natural climate change
Milankovitch cycles
Sunspots
Volcanic activity
Human causes of climate change
The enhanced greenhouse effect
Impacts of climate change
Rising sea levels
Increasing global temperatures
Increasing ocean acidity
Changing weather patterns
2024: a year of disasters
Food production
Floods
Tropical cyclones
Impact of present-day climate change
Responses to climate change
Strategies
How can the impacts of climate change be managed?
What are the most important international agreements so far?
Other strategies and methods of reducing greenhouse gases
Replace fossil fuel use with renewables
Green transport policies
Taxation
Protection of carbon sinks
Carbon capture and storage
Are the solutions sustainable?
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6 Changing populations
World population growth through time
How social, economic, and political factors have influenced birth and death rates since 1900
Factors that cause population change
Birth and death rates
Fertility rate
Reasons for high birth rates
Cultural and social
Religious reasons
Demographic reasons
Economic reasons
Reasons for falling death rates
Reasons for high death rates
Migration
Rapid natural population growth
Problems of rapid population growth
Pro-natalist policies and low growth rates
An evaluation of pro-natalist policies
Example: Sweden’s policies for coping with slow growth
Population structure
Changing population structures
Population pyramids and the DTM
Factors influencing changes in population structure
The population structure of countries with youthful populations
Variations in dependent populations and standards of living
The population structure of countries with ageing populations
International migration: causes and impacts
How are international migrants classified?
Push and pull factors
Economic migrations from Mexico into the USA
Impacts of migration on migrants
Travel
Resettlement
Impacts on the country of origin
Positive economic benefits
Negative economic impacts
Positive social benefits
Negative social impacts
Positive environmental impact
Impacts on the destination country
Positive economic impacts
Negative economic impacts
Positive social impacts
Negative social impacts
Negative environmental impact
Strategies to manage international migration
Country of origin
Destination country
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7 Changing towns and cities
Where people live
Why do global urban growth rates vary?
Declining urban growth rates in HICs
Rapid urban growth rates in LICs
Why do people move to towns and cities in LICs?
Social factors
Economic factors
Environmental factors
Political factors
Living in towns and cities
Culture
Housing
Services
Leisure
Consumption
Economic development
What are the challenges of rapid urban growth?
Housing and unplanned settlements
Transport
Service provision
Inequality and employment
Waste management and pollution
Domestic waste
Air pollution
Water pollution
Visual pollution
Noise pollution
Urban sprawl and the rural–urban fringe
How can urban growth be managed?
How sustainable is rapid urban growth?
Environmental sustainability
Social sustainability
Economic sustainability
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8 Development
Measuring development
Indicators of development
What affects a person’s quality of life?
What affects a person’s standard of living?
Uneven global development
Reasons for the development gap
Social factors
Economic factors
Environmental factors
Countries at different stages of development
The global pattern of LICs, MICs, and HICs
What is meant by sustainable development?
Achieving sustainable and even development
Strategies to reduce uneven development
Trade
Debt
Debt relief
International aid
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9 Changing economies
Employment structures
Types of industry
Changes in employment structure
Factors affecting location of industry
Land
Labour
Raw materials
Transport
Energy
Markets
Political policies
Technology
Communications
Containerisation
The changing distribution of industry
Textiles: a light industry
Iron and steel: a heavy industry
High tech: a newer industry
Globalisation
What is globalisation?
The main features of globalisation
Factors which have increased globalisation
Impacts of globalisation
Trade
Transport
Culture
Communications
Technology
Transnational corporations (TNCs)
The role of TNCs
The global organisation of TNCs
Tourism: an expanding industry
Reasons for the tourism boom
An appraisal of the Butler Life Cycle Model of a Tourist Area
Benefits of tourism at various scales
Environment
Society
Economy
Problems of tourism at various scales
Environment
Society
Economy
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10 Resource provision
Food production
What is farming?
Farming as a system
Commercial and subsistence farming
Commercial farming
Subsistence farming
Intensive and extensive farming
Hydroponics
Aeroponics
Aquaponics
How and why does food consumption vary?
Undernutrition and overnutrition
Food insecurity at different levels of development
Factors that affect food supply
Human factors
Low capital investment
Poor transport
Wars
Increased use of biofuels
Natural factors
Soil exhaustion
Drought
Floods
Tropical cyclones
Pests
Disease
Crops
Animals
Farmers
How can the food supply be increased?
Greater inputs of water
Greater inputs of fertiliser
Greater inputs of pesticides and herbicides
Mechanisation and the removal of field boundaries
Improved crop and animal varieties
Improved communications
Extension of cultivation
The globalisation of food supplies
Reasons for globalisation of food supplies
Food aid
Criticisms of food aid
Managing soil erosion
Soil erosion by the wind
Soil erosion by running water
Soil conservation
Managing desertification
The Great Green Wall
What are the barriers to managing desertification sustainably?
Energy production
Renewable energy
Geothermal energy
Hydroelectric power
Solar power
Tidal power
Wave power
Wind power
Non-renewable energy
Oil
Coal
Natural gas
Nuclear power
Fuelwood
The increasing global production and consumption of energy
Why is energy consumption rising?
Benefits of higher energy consumption
Problems of higher energy consumption
The importance of energy security
Responses to the threats to energy security
The global pattern of energy surplus and deficit
Why do some countries have a surplus and some have a deficit?
The strategies used to increase energy supplies
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11 Geographical skills
Survey maps (topographic maps)
Using the key and symbols
Map scale and distance measurements
Grid references
Four-figure grid references
Six-figure grid references
Latitude and longitude
Compass directions
360° bearings
Spot heights and contours
Relief features
Slopes
Uplands and lowlands
Valleys and floodplains
Plateaux
Ridges
Spurs
Scarps
Drainage
Drainage density
Channel shape
Stream (drainage) patterns
Cross-sections
How to plot or complete a cross-section
Physical features of coastlines
Settlement
Urban morphology
Land use
Small-scale maps
Photographs
Data tables
Diagrams and graphs
Line graphs
Bar graphs
Histograms
Divided bar graphs
Pie graphs
Doughnut graphs
Desire and flow line maps
Radial graphs and wind rose graphs
Scatter graphs
Triangular graphs
Population pyramids
Isoline maps
Choropleth maps
Dispersion graphs
Kite diagrams
Proportional symbols
Systems diagrams
Venn diagrams
GIS (geographical information systems)
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12 Geographical investigations
Formulating a hypothesis
Planning the investigation
Sampling techniques
Random sampling
Systematic sampling
Stratified sampling
Risk assessment
Equipment and number of students needed
Pilot study
Collecting the data
Types of data
Recording information on maps
Designing a recording sheet
Measuring accurately
Methods of measuring river velocity
Counting methods
Designing a questionnaire
Sampling
Questionnaires
Land use
Vegetation
Bipolar surveys
Recording observations in the field
Presenting the data
Analysing and interpreting the data
Simple statistical analysis
Look for trends
Look for patterns, relationships, and anomalies
Suggest explanations for your findings
Drawing conclusions based on your results
Can your hypothesis be accepted?
To what extent was it accurate?
Evaluating your investigation
To what extent was it successful?
How could it be improved?
How could the investigation be extended?
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13 Exam-style questions
Physical geography
Human geography
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Glossary
Index
Answers to end-of-chapter questions
Acknowledgements
List of Illustrations
List of Tables
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