The Role of Community-Mindedness in the Self-Regulation of Drug Cultures
Anke Stallwitz
The Role of Community-Mindedness in the Self-Regulation of Drug Cultures
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This book analyzes heroin users and the drug subculture on the Shetland Islands, an area known for its geographical remoteness, rural character and relative wealth. It fills the scientific gap created by the conventional research in heroin research, which is usually conducted in urban areas and relies on treatment and prison populations. Based on qualitative, in-depth interviews with twenty-four heroin users, this book depicts and analyzes the nature and historical development of the local heroin scene. It illustrates the features and internal structures of the subculture, and it examines the manner in which both are influenced by the location-specific geographical, cultural and socio-economic conditions. It thus reveals complex causal associations that are hard to recognize in urban environments. Complete with a list of references used and recommendations for future research, this book is a vital tool for progressive and pragmatic approaches to policy, intervention and research in the field of illicit drug use.

Language
English
ISBN
978-94-007-3860-7
The Role of Community-Mindedness in the Self-Regulation of Drug Cultures
Acknowledgements
Contents
Synopsis
Part I: Theoretical and Empirical Foundations of the Study
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Drug Use on the Shetland Islands
1.2 Forerun of the Study
1.3 Overview of the Book
References
Chapter 2: Theoretical Background and Literature Review
2.1 An Introduction
2.2 De fi nitions of Problematic and Unproblematic Drug Use
2.2.1 De fi ning Problematic Drug Use
2.2.2 Defining Unproblematic, Controlled Drug Use
2.2.2.1 Social Integration
2.2.3 Spectrum of Using Patterns
2.2.4 Definitions Employed in This Book
2.3 Deficiency-Oriented Approaches: The Prevailing Theoretical Basis of Most Research on Heroin Use
2.3.1 The Medical or Disease Model
2.3.2 Biological, Psychological, and Sociological Approaches
2.3.2.1 The Risk and Protection Factor Approach
2.3.2.2 The Receptor Model
2.3.2.3 Social- and Individual-Psychological Models
2.3.2.4 Sociological Models
2.3.3 Conclusions Regarding Conventional Theories of Heroin Use and Addiction
2.4 Limitations of Knowledge from Traditional Samples
2.5 Qualitative Drugs Research
2.5.1 Qualitative Heroin Studies with Urban Problematic Heroin Users
2.6 Non-habitual, Controlled Use of ‘Hard’ Drugs
2.6.1 Research on Non-dependent and Controlled Heroin Use
2.6.2 The Significance of Drug, Set, and Setting in the Prevention of Problematic Drug Use
2.6.3 Further Research Concerned with the Control of Heroin and Crack/Cocaine Use
2.6.4 Practical Application of Findings from Research on Controlled Heroin Use
2.7 Drug Subcultures
2.7.1 Defining Drug Subculture and Drug Scene
2.7.2 Research on Heroin Subcultures
2.8 Location-Specific Research Perspectives of Drug Use Across the World
2.8.1 Heroin Use in Non-urban Areas
2.8.2 Defining ‘Rural’
2.8.2.1 ‘Rurality’ of Shetland
2.8.3 Excursion into the Empirical Evidence of Non-urban Drugs Research Across the World
2.8.3.1 Research on Drug Use in Rural US America
2.8.3.2 Research on Drug Use in Rural Australia
2.8.3.3 Research on Drug Use in Rural Europe
2.8.3.4 Research on Drug Use in Rural England and Scotland
2.8.4 Location-Specific Drugs Research
2.8.4.1 Research on Drug Use in Rural Arabia and Asia, Polynesia, Central- and Very Remote North America
2.8.4.2 Location-Specific Drugs Research in Scotland
2.9 Published and Unpublished Research on Drug Use in Shetland
2.9.1 Statistical Information on Drug Use in Shetland: ISD and CADSS
2.9.2 Unpublished Research on Drug Use in Shetland
2.9.3 Published Research on Heroin Use in Shetland
2.9.4 Media Information on Heroin Use in Shetland
2.10 The Laboratory Situation of the Shetland Islands
2.11 Research Aim
2.11.1 Original Research Question
References
Chapter 3: Methodology
3.1 Methodological Approach: Qualitative, Semi-structured In-Depth Interviews
3.2 The Significance of Qualitative Methods in Drugs Research
3.2.1 Qualitative Methods Within the Social Sciences
3.2.2 Status and Role of Qualitative Drugs Research
3.3 Grounded Theory as Methodological Foundation
3.3.1 Historical and Epistemological Roots of Grounded Theory
3.3.2 The Principles of Grounded Theory
3.4 Speci fi cation of the Research Perspective and Question
3.4.1 Revised Research Question
3.4.2 Cultural Psychology as Meta-theoretical Framework
3.4.2.1 ‘Culture’ According to Cultural Psychology
3.4.2.2 Research Angles Within Cultural Psychology
3.5 Preconceptions
3.6 Research Procedure
3.6.1 Research Location and Design
3.6.2 Participant Criteria
3.6.3 Sampling
3.6.4 Participant Characteristics3
3.6.4.1 Clients
3.6.4.2 Non-clients and Occasional Users
3.6.5 Research Instrument
3.6.6 Interview Setting
3.6.7 Data Collection and Interview Conditions
3.6.7.1 Specificities of Conducting Research in a Small, Remote, and Isolated Island Location
3.6.8 Provisions for Trustworthiness
3.6.9 Con fi dentiality and Ethical Considerations
3.7 Data Analysis
References
Part II: The Shetland Heroin Scene: Location-Specific Characteristics and Historical Evolution
Chapter 4: Introduction to Part II
4.1 Participant Perspectives and Reality Understanding
4.2 Overview of Part II
Reference
Chapter 5: Shetland and Substance Use
5.1 The Alcohol Culture
5.2 The Overall Drug Scene
5.2.1 Historical Roots
5.2.2 Nature and Mentality
5.2.3 Male/Female Ratio
5.2.4 Availability and Spread of Drugs Inside and Outside Lerwick
5.2.4.1 Availability and Use of Speci fi c Drugs
Cannabis
Crack/Cocaine
Benzodiazepines
5.2.4.2 Acceptability of Drugs and Drug Use
5.2.5 Quality and Prices
5.2.6 Excessiveness
5.2.7 Intravenous Use
5.2.8 Problematic Use
References
Chapter 6: The Features and Descriptive Characteristics of the Heroin Scene in Shetland
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Noticeability of Heroin Use in Shetland
6.3 Size of the Scene
6.3.1 Number of Users
6.4 Location and Expansion of the Heroin Scene
6.5 Age Range
6.6 Male/Female Ratio
6.7 Nature and Extent of Heroin-Use-Associated Problems
6.7.1 Financing Use and Habit: Work Instead of Crime?
6.7.2 Bene fi ts
6.7.3 Dealing as a Means of Financing
6.7.4 ‘Skag Slags’
6.7.5 Community-Mindedness: Protection Against Crime?
6.7.6 Summary and Conclusions Concerning Drug-Related Crime in Shetland
6.7.7 Extent of Addictive and Heavy Use
6.7.8 High-Risk Behaviour and Blood-Borne Viruses
6.7.8.1 Conclusions on High-Risk Behaviour and Blood-Borne Infections
6.7.9 Emergencies and Fatal Overdoses
6.7.10 Summary and Conclusions Concerning Heroin-Use-Associated Problems
6.8 Availability, Quality, and Price of the Shetland Heroin
6.8.1 Intermittent Supply
6.8.2 Availability Versus Accessibility
6.8.3 External Control Through Intermittent Supply
6.8.4 Coping Strategies to Compensate Restricted Availability
6.8.5 Quality and Price
6.8.6 Summary and Conclusions Concerning Availability, Quality, and Price
6.9 Patterns of Heroin Use
6.9.1 Common Routes of Administration: From Smoking to Injecting?
6.9.2 Polydrug Use
6.9.3 Excessiveness
6.9.4 Christmas Binges
6.10 The Shetland Heroin Scene Compared to Heroin Scenes on the Urban Mainland
6.11 Summary of the Recent Transitions
References
Chapter 7: The Internal Structure of the Heroin Scene in Shetland
7.1 Introduction
7.2 A Subculture of Diverse User Types and Groups
7.2.1 Integrated Versus Marginalised Users and User Groups
7.2.2 Hidden Versus Obvious Users
7.2.3 Heavy Users
7.2.3.1 Heavy Employed Users: Living on the Edge
Example of a Heavy Employed User
Example of a Heavy Employed User’s Personal User Group
7.2.3.2 Full-Time Users
7.2.3.3 Users from the Severe End
7.2.4 Soothmoothers
7.2.5 Occasional or Recreational Users
7.2.5.1 Examples of Occasional Users and Their User Circles
7.2.5.2 Control Rules and Mechanisms of Occasional Users
7.2.5.3 Conclusions About Occasional Users
7.2.6 Female Users
7.2.6.1 Personal Examples of Interviewed Female Users
7.2.6.2 Conclusions About Female Users
7.2.7 Users in the Countryside
7.2.8 In fl uential User Groups
7.2.8.1 The Original Crew
7.2.8.2 The Old School Users: The Privileged Core Network
7.2.9 Young Users
7.3 The Heroin Scene’s Social Network and Mentality: Subject to an Underlying Spirit of Community-Mindedness?
7.3.1 Contact Between the Groups and Circles
7.3.2 Level of Scene Involvement and Position
7.3.2.1 Hard Core, Peripheral Edge and in Between
7.3.2.2 Scene Position
7.3.2.3 Access to Heroin
7.3.3 Supply Structures
7.3.3.1 Spread
7.3.3.2 The Shetland Way of Dealing: Exemplified by ‘Small Group Supply’
7.3.3.3 Distributors
7.3.3.4 Dealers
Example of a Small Dealer
Example of a Significant Dealer
7.3.4 Prevailing Mentality: Insular and Community-Minded?
7.3.4.1 Defining Community-Mindedness and Specifying Related Aspects
Everyone Knowing Each Other
Friendship, Trust and Care Among Heavy, Habitual Users
Cliqueyness: Excluding Outsiders
Soothmoother Prejudice
Cliquey Dealing
Grassers
7.3.5 Junkie Mentality in Shetland
7.3.5.1 In-Group/Out-Group – Changing Perspectives
7.3.5.2 Mainland Mentality in Shetland
7.3.5.3 Example of ‘Junkie Mentality’ Amongst Shetlanders
7.3.6 Established Norms, Rules and Rituals Within the Heroin Scene
7.3.6.1 The Consequences of the Stigma Attached to Heroin
Secrecy of Heroin Use and Supply
Unaware Girlfriends
Hypocrisy of Heroin Using Party Goers
Stigmatisation and Anticipated Costs as Treatment Barrier
7.3.6.2 Supply Norms: Relaxedness, Patience and Softness
7.3.6.3 Norms and Rules of the Old School
7.3.7 Summary of the Heroin Scene Mentality
7.4 Changes of the Heroin Scene’s Appearance and Internal Organisation
7.4.1 Spread and Growth of the Scene
7.4.1.1 Reasons for the Spread and Growth
7.4.2 Increase in Intravenous Drug Use
7.4.2.1 Reasons for the Increase of Intravenous Drug Use
7.4.3 Transitions in the Overall Scene Mentality
7.4.3.1 Reasons for the Mentality and Overall Transitions Within the Scene
References
Chapter 8: The Shetland Heroin Scene from a Historical Perspective: Five Distinct Eras
8.1 Introduction
8.2 The Early Days: Hippies and Oil Workers
8.2.1 Cultural Conditions at the Beginnings of the Shetland Heroin Scene
8.2.2 A Civilised Friendly Social Scene of Responsible Older Users
8.2.3 Using Heroin in Shetland in the 1980s: ‘Same as Having a Drink or a Joint’
8.2.4 Ideational Heroin Use Within the Framework of Small, Select and Secretive Groups
8.2.5 The Golden Light of the Good Old Days
8.2.6 Conditions of Change: A Second Generation Taking Over
8.3 The Era of the Old School
8.3.1 The Old School Style of Regulating the Scene
8.3.2 The Properties and Conditions of the Heroin Market Throughout the 1990s
8.3.2.1 Availability
8.3.2.2 Quality
8.3.2.3 Accessibility
8.3.3 Police Turning a Blind Eye?
8.3.4 A Changing Trend: A Gradual Growing and Opening of the Scene
8.3.4.1 Increase of Diverse Users with Varying Patterns of Use
8.3.4.2 Increase of Injecting
8.3.4.3 Growing Demand for Intervention
8.4 The Contained Commercialisation: On the Edge of Explosion
8.4.1 Conditions Preceding and Promoting Spread and Growth of Scene
8.4.1.1 Beginning Commercialisation and ‘Normalisation’ of Heroin Use: Aftermath of the Rave Era?
8.4.1.2 Shift from Party Drugs to Heroin
8.4.1.3 Changing Social Status of Heroin: Reduction of the Stigma
8.4.1.4 Cultural Prerequisite: Openness to Experiment with Substances
8.4.2 Drug Use in a Globalised World 1 : The British Heroin-Using Trend Finally Reaching Shetland?
8.4.2.1 Time Scale
8.4.3 Availability and Quality
8.4.3.1 Easier Availability from 1998
Heroin Quality During the Contained Commercialisation
8.4.4 Supply Network
8.4.4.1 From Small Group Supply to One Main Dealer
8.4.4.2 Supply Control: ‘Keeping the Lid On’
8.4.4.3 Peter’s Dealing Network
8.4.4.4 Continuation of the Old School Values
8.4.5 Once Again at the Verge of a Changing Trend: On the Edge of Explosion
8.4.5.1 The Explosion
8.5 The Commercial Peak: Flood Gates Opened
8.5.1 Spreading Out and Noticeability
8.5.2 Conditions Associated with the Expansion of the Scene: Supply Network
8.5.2.1 Two People Dealing
8.5.2.2 Changing Principles: From Social to Commercial?
8.5.2.3 The ‘Liverpool Connection’
8.5.3 Availability of Heroin: Wholesale Supply
8.5.4 Quality and Price
8.5.5 Growing Accessibility and Loosening of Control
8.5.6 Changes in the Number, Range and Diversity of Users
8.5.7 Problematic Tendencies Associated with the Rise in Heroin Availability
8.5.7.1 Expansion to Kids
8.5.7.2 Increase Addiction
8.5.7.3 Expansion of Intravenous, Hazardous Drug Use
8.5.7.4 ‘Disgraceful’ Formations of Intravenous Heroin Use
8.5.7.5 The Conjunction of Easy Availability and Personal Problems
8.5.7.6 Transformations Within the Heroin Use-Related Value System: Urban Tendencies?
Junkie Manners: From Social to Sordid
Soothmoother In fl uence
The ‘Prison Connection’
8.5.7.7 Beginning of Drugs Crime
8.5.7.8 Rise in Hepatitis C
8.5.8 The Same Trend as on the British Mainland?
8.5.9 The Downfall of the Commercial Peak
8.5.9.1 Causal Conditions: Loss of Control
8.6 The Current Fragmentation
8.6.1 Conditions Associated with Change: Increased Police Intervention
8.6.1.1 The Heroin Scene Turns Underground
8.6.1.2 Cessation of Commercial Supply
8.6.1.3 Dogs Against Drugs
8.6.2 The Fragmentation of the Heroin Supply and Using Network
8.6.2.1 Small-Scale Dealing
8.6.2.2 Small Group Supply: Return to the Original Cliquey Structure?
8.6.3 Availability and Accessibility
8.6.3.1 Effects on Extent of Use and Levels of Addiction
8.6.4 Quality of Heroin
Reference
Chapter 9: The Current Heroin-Using Trend in Shetland
9.1 No Heroin Problem at the Moment
9.2 Further Spreading of Heroin Use
9.3 Further Spreading of Intravenous Use
9.4 Internal Structure: Impact of the Drug Use Trend on User Circles and Groups
9.4.1 The Original Crew
9.4.2 The Old School Users
9.4.3 User Circles in General
9.5 Continuing Urbanisation?
9.6 Future Prognosis: Cessation of Commercial Supply or Recurrent Commercial Loops?
9.7 Conclusions Regarding the Future Course of the Heroin-Using Trend in Shetland
Chapter 10: The Community-Minded Spirit of the Shetland Heroin Scene
10.1 Strength and Position of Community-Mindedness
10.2 Community-Mindedness, the Overall Scene Mentality, and the Supply Structures During the Five Eras of the Shetland Heroin Scene
10.2.1 The Early Days
10.2.2 The Era of the Old School
10.2.3 The Contained Commercialisation
10.2.4 The Commercial Peak
10.2.5 The Current Fragmentation
10.2.6 The Dichotomy of Community-Mindedness: Social Care and Social Exclusion
References
Chapter 11: Summary of Part II
11.1 Summary
11.2 Shetland and Substance Use
11.2.1 The Alcohol Culture
11.2.2 The Overall Drug Scene
11.2.2.1 The Problem-Reduced Nature of the Shetland Drug Scene
11.2.2.2 Availability and Acceptability of Illicit Drugs in Shetland
11.2.2.3 Quality of Drugs in Shetland
11.2.2.4 Spread of Excessive and Intravenous Drug Use
11.3 The Features and Descriptive Characteristics of the Heroin Scene on the Shetland Islands
11.3.1 The Shetland Heroin Scene: Problem-Reduced and Socially Unobtrusive
11.3.1.1 Availability, Quality, and Price
11.3.1.2 Community-Mindedness: Caring for One’s Own
11.3.1.3 Size and Location of the Heroin Scene
11.3.1.4 Age Range and Gender Distribution of Users
11.3.1.5 Patterns of Use
11.3.2 Recent Changes of the Heroin Scene in Shetland
11.4 The Internal Structure of the Shetland Heroin Scene
11.4.1 A Subculture of Diverse User Types and Groups
11.4.1.1 Contact Between Groups and Circles
11.4.1.2 Scene Position and Access to Heroin
11.4.2 Supply Structures
11.4.2.1 The Shetland Way of Dealing and Supplying
11.4.2.2 Dealers
11.4.3 Heroin Scene Mentality: Community-Mindedness and Cliqueyness
11.4.4 Beginning Spread of Mainland Mentality: ‘Junkie Tendencies’
11.5 The Shetland Heroin Scene from a Historical Perspective: Five Distinct Eras
11.5.1 The Early Days of the Shetland Heroin Scene
11.5.1.1 The Beginnings of the Shetland Heroin Scene: Hippies and Oil Workers
11.5.1.2 Using Heroin in the Shetland in the 1980s: ‘Same as Having a Drink or a Joint’
11.5.1.3 A Small Scene of Responsible Older Users
11.5.1.4 Ideational Heroin Use Within the Framework of Small, Secretive, and Select Groups
11.5.1.5 The Golden Light of the Good Old Days
11.5.1.6 Conditions of Change: A Second-Generation Taking Over
11.5.2 The Era of the Old School
11.5.2.1 Regulating the Scene
11.5.2.2 Properties and Conditions of the Heroin Market Throughout the 1990s
11.5.2.3 Police Turning a Blind Eye?
11.5.2.4 A Changing Trend: A Gradual Growing and Opening of the Heroin Scene
11.5.3 The Contained Commercialisation
11.5.3.1 Conditions of Change: A Beginning Commercialisation of Heroin Use as an Aftermath of the Rave Era?
11.5.3.2 Drug Use in a Globalised World: The British Heroin Trend Finally Reaching Shetland?
11.5.3.3 Availability and Quality
11.5.3.4 Internal Structure: From Small Group Supply to One Main Dealer
11.5.3.5 Once Again at the Verge of Change: The Explosion
11.5.4 The Commercial Peak
11.5.4.1 Expansion and Noticeability
11.5.4.2 Conditions Associated with the Expansion of the Heroin Scene
11.5.4.3 Availability of Heroin: Wholesale Supply
11.5.4.4 Quality and Price
11.5.4.5 Changes in the Nature of the Heroin Scene: Increasing Physical Morbidity
11.5.4.6 Transformations Within the Heroin Use-Related Value System: Urban Tendencies?
11.5.4.7 The Mainland Heroin Trend Manifesting Itself in Shetland
11.5.4.8 The Downfall of the Commercial Peak
11.5.5 The Current Fragmentation
11.5.5.1 Disruption of Commercial Supply and Underground Turn of the Heroin Scene
11.5.5.2 Availability, Accessibility, and Quality: Reductions in Levels of Addiction and Overall Use
11.5.5.3 Quality of Heroin
11.6 The Current Heroin Using Trend in Shetland
11.6.1 Impact of the Heroin Scene’s Momentary State on User Circles and Groups
11.6.2 Continuing Commercialisation and Urbanisation?
11.7 The Community-Minded Spirit of the Shetland Heroin Scene
Part III: Community-Mindedness and Self-regulation in Drug Cultures
Chapter 12: Community-Mindedness and Self-regulation in Heroin Scenes in the Scientific Literature
12.1 Community-Minded Orientation
12.2 Grund ( 1993) : Drug Use as a Social Ritual – Functionality, Symbolism, and Determinants of Self-regulation
12.3 Lalander ( 2003) : Hooked on Heroin: Drugs and Drifters in a Globalised World
12.4 Kemmesies ( 2004) : Between Intoxication and Reality – Drug Use in the Bourgeois Context1
12.5 Self-regulation of Heroin Use and Heroin-Using Subcultures
12.5.1 Scenes of Occasional Users
12.5.2 Scenes of Heavy, Habitual Users
12.5.3 The Role of Rituals
12.5.4 Conclusions on the Role of Community-Mindedness in the Self-regulation of Heroin Use and Scenes
References
Chapter 13: Explaining Drug Markets and Distribution Systems
13.1 Open and Closed Drug Markets
13.1.1 Social Network Markets
13.2 Recent Developments Within Drug Markets
13.3 Different Market Systems
13.3.1 Different Styles of Dealing Within a Market System
13.3.2 Organisational Structure and Social Cohesion of Drug Markets
13.3.3 Community-Minded Norms According to Organisational Structure
13.4 Trajectories of Illicit Drug Markets
References
Chapter 14: Historical Transitions of Urban Drug Markets and Scenes
14.1 New York Heroin Culture
14.2 Heroin Markets and Scenes in New York
References
Chapter 15: The British, Scottish, and Shetland Heroin Trends in Numbers
15.1 The British Heroin Trend
15.2 Statistical Information on Drug Trends in Shetland Compared to Glasgow and Overall Scotland
15.2.1 New Clients
15.2.2 Prevalence of Heroin Use
15.2.3 Age of Onset of Heroin Use
15.2.4 Amphetamine Use
15.2.5 Intravenous Drug Use in the Previous Month
15.2.6 Age of Onset of Injecting
15.2.6.1 Intravenous Heroin Use
15.2.6.2 Sharing of Syringes in the Previous Month
15.2.6.3 Prevalence of Hepatitis C
15.2.6.4 Drug Deaths
15.2.6.5 A Comparison of Heroin Users in Shetland and in Scotland Overall
References
Chapter 16: Media Reports on Heroin in Shetland
16.1 Media Reports
References
Chapter 17: Heroin Use in Relation to the Location-Specific Particularities of the Shetland Islands
17.1 Socio-economic Situation
17.2 Crime
17.3 Geographic Location
17.4 Culture
17.4.1 ‘Living Life on the Edge’
17.4.2 Community-Mindedness
17.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 18: Explaining the Evolution of Drug Eras
References
Chapter 19: Future Prognosis of the Shetland Heroin Scene
Reference
Part IV: Promoting Self-regulation and Social Integration of Drug Cultures
Chapter 20: A Model of Self-regulation and Social Integration of Drug Subcultures
20.1 Practical Recommendations Derived from the Model
20.2 Résumé on the Subject of Society’s Dealing with Illicit Drug Use
20.3 Implications for Future Research1
References
Appendix
Appendix 1: Interview Guidelines
Appendix 2: Shetland, Scottish and British Slang and Dialect
Appendix 3: Strengths and Limitations of the Study
Index
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