History of the inductive sciences, from the earliest to the present time
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HISTORY OF THE INDUCTIVE SCIENCES, FROM THE EARLIEST TO THE PRESENT TIME.
PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION.
CONTENTS OF THE FIRST VOLUME.
CONTENTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME.
INDEX OF PROPER NAMES.
INDEX OF TECHNICAL TERMS.
INTRODUCTION.
BOOK I.
CHAPTER I. Prelude to the Greek School Philosophy.
Sect. 1.—First Attempts of the Speculative Faculty in Physical Inquiries.
Sect. 2.—Primitive Mistake in Greek Physical Philosophy.
CHAPTER II. The Greek School Philosophy.
Sect. 1.—The general Foundation of the Greek School Philosophy.
Sect. 2.—The Aristotelian Physical Philosophy.
Sect. 3.—Technical Forms of the Greek Schools.
CHAPTER III. Failure of the Physical Philosophy of the Greek Schools.
Sect. 1.—Result of the Greek School Philosophy.
Sect. 2.—Cause of the Failure of the Greek Physical Philosophy.
BOOK II.
INTRODUCTION.
CHAPTER I. Earliest Stages of Mechanics and Hydrostatics.
Sect. 1.—Mechanics.
Sect. 2.—Hydrostatics.
CHAPTER II. Earliest Stages of Optics.
CHAPTER III. Earliest Stages of Harmonics.
BOOK III.
INTRODUCTION.
CHAPTER I. Earliest Stages of Astronomy.
Sect. 1.—Formation of the Notion of a Year.
Sect. 2.—Fixation of the Civil Year.
Sect. 3.—Correction of the Civil Year. (Julian Calendar.)
Sect. 4.—Attempts at the Fixation of the Month.
Sect. 5.—Invention of Lunisolar Years.
Sect. 6.—The Constellations.
Sect. 7.—The Planets.
Sect. 8.—The Circles of the Sphere.
Sect. 9.—The Globular Form of the Earth.
Sect. 10.—The Phases of the Moon.
Sect. 11.—Eclipses.
Sect. 12.—Sequel to the Early Stages of Astronomy.
CHAPTER II. Prelude to the Inductive Epoch of Hipparchus.
CHAPTER III. Inductive Epoch of Hipparchus.
Sect. 1.—Establishment of the Theory of Epicycles and Eccentrics.
Sect. 2.—Estimate of the Value of the Theory of Eccentrics and Epicycles.
Sect. 3.—Discovery of the Precession of the Equinoxes.
CHAPTER IV. Sequel to the Inductive Epoch of Hipparchus.
Sect. 1.—Researches which verified the Theory.
Sect. 2.—Researches which did not verify the Theory.
Sect. 3.—Methods of Observation of the Greek Astronomers.
Sect. 4.—Period from Hipparchus to Ptolemy.
Sect. 5.—Measures of the Earth.
Sect. 6.—Ptolemy’s Discovery of Evection.
Sect. 7.—Conclusion of the History of Greek Astronomy.
Sect. 8.—Arabian Astronomy.
BOOK IV.
INTRODUCTION.
CHAPTER I. On the Indistinctness of Ideas of the Middle Ages.
CHAPTER II. The Commentatorial Spirit of the Middle Ages.
CHAPTER III. Of the Mysticism of the Middle Ages.
CHAPTER IV. Of the Dogmatism of the Stationary Period.
CHAPTER V. Progress of the Arts in the Middle Ages.
BOOK V.
INTRODUCTION.
Of Formal and Physical Astronomy.
CHAPTER I. Prelude to the Inductive Epoch of Copernicus.
CHAPTER II. Induction of Copernicus.—The Heliocentric Theory asserted on formal grounds.
CHAPTER III. Sequel to Copernicus.—The Reception and Development of the Copernican Theory.
Sect. 1.—First Reception of the Copernican Theory.
Sect. 2.—Diffusion of the Copernican Theory.
Sect. 3.—The Heliocentric Theory confirmed by Facts.—Galileo’s Astronomical Discoveries.
Sect. 4.—The Copernican System opposed on Theological Grounds.
Sect. 5.—The Heliocentric Theory confirmed on Physical considerations.—(Prelude to Kepler’s Astronomical Discoveries.)
CHAPTER IV. Inductive Epoch of Kepler.
Sect. 1.—Intellectual Character of Kepler.
Sect. 2.—Kepler’s Discovery of his Third Law.
Sect. 3.—Kepler’s Discovery of his First and Second Laws.—Elliptical Theory of the Planets.
CHAPTER V. Sequel to the epoch of Kepler. Reception, Verification, and Extension of the Elliptical Theory.
Sect. 1.—Application of the Elliptical Theory to the Planets.
Sect. 2.—Application of the Elliptical Theory to the Moon.
Sect. 3.—Causes of the further Progress of Astronomy.
BOOK VI.
INTRODUCTION.
CHAPTER I. Prelude to the Epoch of Galileo.
Sect. 1.—Prelude to the Science of Statics.
Sect. 2.—Revival of the Scientific Idea of Pressure.—Stevinus.—Equilibrium of Oblique Forces.
Sect. 3.—Prelude to the Science of Dynamics.—Attempts at the First Law of Motion.
CHAPTER II. Inductive Epoch of Galileo.—Discovery of the Laws of Motion in Simple Cases.
Sect. 1.—Establishment of the First Law of Motion.
Sect. 2.—Formation and Application of the Notion of Accelerating Force.—Laws of Falling Bodies.
Sect. 3.—Establishment of the Second Law of Motion.—Curvilinear Motions.
Sect. 4.—Generalization of the Laws of Equilibrium.—Principle of Virtual Velocities.
Sect. 5.—Attempts at the Third Law of Motion.—Notion of Momentum.
CHAPTER III. Sequel to the Epoch of Galileo.—Period of Verification and Deduction.
CHAPTER IV. Discovery of the Mechanical Principles of Fluids.
Sect. 1.—Rediscovery of the Laws of Equilibrium of Fluids.
Sect. 2.—Discovery of the Laws of Motion of Fluids.
CHAPTER V. Generalization of the Principles of Mechanics.
Sect. 1.—Generalization of the Second Law of Motion.—Central Forces.
Sect. 2.—Generalization of the Third Law of Motion.—Centre of Oscillation.—Huyghens.
CHAPTER VI. Sequel to the Generalization of the Principles of Mechanics.—Period of Mathematical Deduction.—Analytical Mechanics.
BOOK VII.
CHAPTER I. Prelude to the Inductive Epoch of Newton.
CHAPTER II. The Inductive Epoch of Newton.—Discovery of the Universal Gravitation of Matter, according to the Law of the Inverse Square of the Distance.
CHAPTER III. Sequel to the Epoch of Newton.—Reception of the Newtonian Theory.
Sect. 1.—General Remarks.
Sect. 2.—Reception of the Newtonian Theory in England.
Sect. 3.—Reception of the Newtonian Theory abroad.
CHAPTER IV. Sequel to the Epoch of Newton, continued.—Verification and Completion of the Newtonian Theory.
Sect. 1.—Division of the Subject.
Sect. 2.—Application of the Newtonian Theory to the Moon.
Sect. 3.—Application of the Newtonian Theory to the Planets, Satellites, and Earth.
Sect. 4.—Application of the Newtonian Theory to Secular Inequalities.
Sect. 5.—Application of the Newtonian Theory to the New Planets.
Sect. 6.—Application of the Newtonian Theory to Comets.
Sect. 7.—Application of the Newtonian Theory to the Figure of the Earth.
Sect. 8.—Confirmation of the Newtonian Theory by Experiments on Attraction.
Sect. 9.—Application of the Newtonian Theory to the Tides.
CHAPTER V. Discoveries added to the Newtonian Theory.
Sect. 1.—Tables of Astronomical Refraction.
Sect. 2.—Discovery of the Velocity of Light.—Römer.
Sect. 3.—Discovery of Aberration.—Bradley.
Sect. 4.—Discovery of Nutation.
Sect. 5.—Discovery of the Laws of Double Stars.—The two Herschels.
CHAPTER VI. The Instruments and Aids of Astronomy during the Newtonian Period.
Sect. 1.—Instruments.
Sect. 2.—Observatories.
Sect. 3.—Scientific Societies.
Sect. 4.—Patrons of Astronomy.
Sect. 5.—Astronomical Expeditions.
Sect. 6.—Present State of Astronomy.
ADDITIONS TO THE THIRD EDITION.
INTRODUCTION.
BOOK I.
CHAPTER II. The Greek Schools.
The Platonic Doctrine of Ideas.
CHAPTER III. Failure of the Greek Physical Philosophy.
Francis Bacon’s Remarks.
Aristotle’s Account of the Rainbow.
BOOK II.
Plato’s Timæus and Republic.
Hero of Alexandria.
BOOK III.
INTRODUCTION.
CHAPTER I. Earliest Stages of Astronomy.
The Globular Form of the Earth.
The Heliocentric System among the Ancients.
The Eclipse of Thales.
BOOK IV.
GENERAL REMARKS.
CHAPTER V. Progress in the Middle Ages.
Thomas Aquinas.
Roger Bacon.
BOOK V.
CHAPTER I. Prelude to Copernicus.
Nicolas of Cus.
CHAPTER II. The Copernican Theory.
The Moon’s Rotation.
M. Foucault’s Proofs of the Earth’s Motion.
CHAPTER III. Sequel to Copernicus.
English Copernicans.
Giordano Bruno.
Did Francis Bacon reject the Copernican System?
Kepler persecuted.
Were the Papal Edicts against the Copernican System repealed?
BOOK VI.
CHAPTER III. Principles and Problems.
Significance of Analytical Mechanics.
Engineering Mechanics.
Strength of Materials.
Roofs—Arches—Vaults.
BOOK VII.
CHAPTER I. Prelude to Newton.
The Ancients.
Jeremiah Horrox.
Newton’s Discovery of Gravitation.
CHAPTER III. The Principia.
Sect. 2.—Reception of the Principia.
Is Gravitation proportional to Quantity of Matter?
CHAPTER IV. Verification and Completion of the Newtonian Theory.
Tables of the Moon and Planets.
The Discovery of Neptune.
The Minor Planets.
Anomalies in the Action of Gravitation.
The Earth’s Density.
Tides.
Double Stars.
CHAPTER VI.
Sect. 1. Instruments.—2. Clocks.
BOOK VIII.
BOOK VIII.
INTRODUCTION.
The Secondary Mechanical Sciences.
CHAPTER I. Prelude to the Solution of Problems in Acoustics.
CHAPTER II. Problem of the Vibrations of Strings.
CHAPTER III. Problem of the Propagation of Sound.
CHAPTER IV. Problem of different Sounds of the same String.
CHAPTER V. Problem of the Sounds of Pipes.
CHAPTER VI. Problem of Different Modes of Vibration of Bodies in General.
BOOK IX.
INTRODUCTION.
Formal and Physical Optics.
CHAPTER I. Primary Induction of Optics.—Rays of Light and Laws of Reflection.
CHAPTER II. Discovery of the Law of Refraction.
CHAPTER III. Discovery of the Law of Dispersion by Refraction.
CHAPTER IV. Discovery of Achromatism.
CHAPTER V. Discovery of the Laws of Double Refraction.
CHAPTER VI. Discovery of the Laws of Polarization.
CHAPTER VII. Discovery of the Laws of the Colours of Thin Plates.
CHAPTER VIII. Attempts to discover the Laws of other Phenomena.
CHAPTER IX. Discovery of the Laws of Phenomena of Dipolarized Light.
CHAPTER X. Prelude to the Epoch of Young and Fresnel.
CHAPTER XI. Epoch of Young and Fresnel.
Sect. 1.—Introduction.
Sect. 2.—Explanation of the Periodical Colors of Thin Plates and Shadows by the Undulatory Theory.
Sect. 3.—Explanation of Double Refraction by the Undulatory Theory.
Sect. 4.—Explanation of Polarization by the Undulatory Theory.
Sect. 5.—Explanation of Dipolarization by the Undulatory Theory.
CHAPTER XII. Sequel to the Epoch of Young and Fresnel. Reception of the Undulatory Theory.
CHAPTER XIII. Confirmation and Extension of the Undulatory Theory.
BOOK X.
INTRODUCTION.
Of Thermotics and Atmology.
CHAPTER I. The Doctrines of Conduction and Radiation.
Section 1.—Introduction of the Doctrine of Conduction.
Sect. 2.—Introduction of the Doctrine of Radiation.
Sect. 3.—Verifications of the Doctrines of Conduction and Radiation.
Sect. 4.—The Geological and Cosmological Application of Thermotics.
Sect. 5.—Correction of Newton’s Law of Cooling.
Sect. 6.—Other Laws of Phenomena with respect to Radiation.
Sect. 7.—Fourier’s Theory of Radiant Heat.
Sect. 8.—Discovery of the Polarization of Heat.
CHAPTER II. The Laws of Changes occasioned by Heat.
Sect. 1.—Expansion by Heat.—The Law of Dalton and Gay-Lussac for Gases.
Sect. 2.—Specific Heat.—Change of Consistence.
Sect. 3.—The Doctrine of Latent Heat.
CHAPTER III. The Relation of Vapor and Air.
Sect. 1.—The Boylean Law of the Air’s Elasticity.
Sect. 2.—Prelude to Dalton’s Doctrine of Evaporation.
Sect. 3.—Dalton’s Doctrine of Evaporation.
Sect. 4.—Determination of the Laws of the Elastic Force of Steam.
Sect. 5.—Consequences of the Doctrine of Evaporation.—Explanation of Rain, Dew, and Clouds.
CHAPTER IV. Physical Theories of Heat.
BOOK XI.
INTRODUCTION.
Of the Mechanico-Chemical Sciences.
CHAPTER 1. Discovery of Laws of Electric Phenomena.
CHAPTER II. The Progress of Electrical Theory.
BOOK XII.
CHAPTER I. Discovery of Laws of Magnetic Phenomena.
CHAPTER II. Progress of Magnetic Theory.
BOOK XIII.
CHAPTER I. Discovery of Voltaic Electricity.
CHAPTER II. Reception and Confirmation of the Discovery of Voltaic Electricity.
CHAPTER III. Discovery of the Laws of the Mutual Attraction and Repulsion of Voltaic Currents.—Ampère.
CHAPTER IV. Discovery of Electro-magnetic Action.—Oersted.
CHAPTER V. Discovery of the Laws of Electro-magnetic Action.
CHAPTER VI. Theory of Electrodynamical Action.
CHAPTER VII. Consequences of the Electrodynamic Theory.
CHAPTER VIII. Discovery of the Laws of Magneto-Electric Induction.—Faraday.
CHAPTER IX. Transition to Chemical Science.
BOOK XIV.
CHAPTER I. Improvement of the Notion of Chemical Analysis, and Recognition of it as the Spagiric Art.
CHAPTER II. Doctrine of Acid and Alkali.—Sylvius.
CHAPTER III. Doctrine of Elective Attractions. Geoffroy. Bergman.
CHAPTER IV. Doctrine of Acidification and Combustion.—Phlogistic Theory.
CHAPTER V. Chemistry of Gases.—Black. Cavendish.
CHAPTER VI. Epoch of the Theory of Oxygen.—Lavoisier.
Sect. 1.—Prelude to the Theory.—Its Publication.
Sect. 2.—Reception and Confirmation of the Theory of Oxygen.
Sect. 3.—Nomenclature of the Oxygen Theory.
CHAPTER VII. Application and Correction of the Oxygen Theory.
CHAPTER VIII. Theory of Definite, Reciprocal, and Multiple Proportions.
Sect. 1.—Prelude to the Atomic Theory, and its Publication by Dalton.
Sect. 2.—Reception and Confirmation of the Atomic Theory.
Sect. 3.—The Theory of Volumes.—Gay-Lussac.
CHAPTER IX. Epoch of Davy and Faraday.
Sect. 1.—Promulgation of the Electro-chemical Theory by Davy.
Sect. 2.—Establishment of the Electro-chemical Theory by Faraday.
Sect. 3.—Consequences of Faraday’s Discoveries.
Sect. 4.—Reception of the Electro-chemical Theory.
CHAPTER X. Transition from the Chemical to the Classificatory Sciences.
BOOK XV.
INTRODUCTION.
Sect. 1.—Of the Classificatory Sciences.
Sect. 2.—Mineralogy as the Analytico-classificatory Science.
CHAPTER I. Prelude to the Epoch of De Lisle and Haüy.
CHAPTER II. Epoch of Romé De Lisle and Haüy.—Establishment of the Fixity of Crystalline Angles, and the Simplicity of the Laws of Derivation.
CHAPTER III. Reception and Corrections of the Hauïan Crystallography.
CHAPTER IV. Establishment of the Distinction of Systems of Crystallization.—Weiss and Mohs.
CHAPTER V. Reception and Confirmation of the Distinction of Systems of Crystallization.
CHAPTER VI. Correction of the Law of the same Angle for the same Substance.
CHAPTER VII. Attempts to Establish the Fixity of other Physical Properties.—Werner.
CHAPTER VIII. Attempts at the Classification of Minerals.
Sect. 1.—Proper object of Classification.
Sect. 2.—Mixed Systems of Classification.
CHAPTER IX. Attempts at the Reform of Mineralogical Systems.—Separation of the Chemical and Natural History Methods.
Sect. 1.—Natural History System of Mohs.
Sect. 2.—Chemical System of Berzelius and others.
Sect. 3.—Failure of the Attempts at Systematic Reform.
Sect. 4.—Return to Mixed Systems with Improvements.
BOOK XVI.
INTRODUCTION.
CHAPTER I. Imaginary Knowledge of Plants.
CHAPTER II. Unsystematic Knowledge of Plants.
CHAPTER III. Formation of a System of Arrangement of Plants.
Sect. 1.—Prelude to the Epoch of Cæsalpinus.
Sect. 2.—Epoch of Cæsalpinus.—Formation of a System of Arrangement.
Sect. 3.—Stationary Interval.
Sect. 4.—Sequel to the Epoch of Cæsalpinus. Further Formation and Adoption of Systematic Arrangement.
CHAPTER IV. The Reform of Linnæus.
Sect. 1.—Introduction of the Reform.
Sect. 2.—Linnæan Reform of Botanical Terminology.
Sect. 3.—Linnæan Reform of Botanical Nomenclature.
Sect. 4.—Linnæus’s Artificial System.
Sect. 5.—Linnæus’s Views on a Natural Method.
Sect. 6.—Reception and Diffusion of the Linnæan Reform.
CHAPTER V. Progress towards a Natural System of Botany.
CHAPTER VI. The Progress of Systematic Zoology.
CHAPTER VII. The Progress of Ichthyology.
BOOK XVII.
INTRODUCTION.
Of the Organical Sciences
CHAPTER I. Discovery of the Organs of Voluntary Motion.
Sect. 1.—Knowledge of Galen and his Predecessors.
Sect. 2.—Recognition of Final Causes in Physiology. Galen.
CHAPTER II. Discovery of the Circulation of the Blood.
Sect. 1.—Prelude to the Discovery.
Sect. 2.—The Discovery of the Circulation made by Harvey.
Sect. 3.—Reception of the Discovery.
Sect. 4.—Bearing of the Discovery on the Progress of Physiology.
CHAPTER III. Discovery of the Motion of the Chyle, and consequent Speculations.
Sect. 1.—The Discovery of the Motion of the Chyle.
Sect. 2.—The Consequent Speculations. Hypotheses of Digestion.
CHAPTER IV. Examination of the Process of Reproduction in Animals and Plants, and Consequent Speculations.
Sect. 1.—The Examination of the Process of Reproduction in Animals.
Sect. 2.—The Examination of the Process of Reproduction in Vegetables.
Sect. 3.—The Consequent Speculations.—Hypotheses of Generation.
CHAPTER V. Examination of the Nervous System, and Consequent Speculations.
Sect. 1.—The Examination of the Nervous System.
Sect. 2.—The Consequent Speculations. Hypotheses respecting Life, Sensation, and Volition.
CHAPTER VI. Introduction of the Principle of Developed and Metamorphosed Symmetry
Sect. 1.—Vegetable Morphology. Göthe. De Candolle.
Sect. 2.—Application of Vegetable Morphology.
CHAPTER VII. Progress of Animal Morphology.
Sect. 1.—Rise of Comparative Anatomy.
Sect. 2.—Distinction of the General Types of the Forms of Animals.—Cuvier.
Sect. 3.—Attempts to establish the Identity of the Types of Animal Forms.
CHAPTER VIII. The Doctrine of Final Causes in Physiology.
Sect. 1.—Assertion of the Principle of Unity of Plan.
Sect. 2.—Estimate of the Doctrine of Unity of Plan.
Sect. 3.—Establishment and Application of the Principle of the Conditions of Existence of Animals.—Cuvier.
BOOK XVIII.
INTRODUCTION.
Of the Palætiological Sciences.
CHAPTER I. Prelude to Systematic Descriptive Geology
Sect. 1.—Ancient Notices of Geological Facts.
Sect. 2.—Early Descriptions and Collections of Fossils.
Sect. 3.—First Construction of Geological Maps.
CHAPTER II. Formation of Systematic Descriptive Geology.
Sect. 1.—Discovery of the Order and Stratification of the Materials of the Earth.
Sect. 2.—Systematic form given to Descriptive Geology.—Werner.
Sect. 3.—Application of Organic Remains as a Geological Character.—Smith.
Sect. 4.—Advances in Palæontology.—Cuvier.
Sect. 5.—Intellectual Characters of the Founders of Systematic Descriptive Geology.
CHAPTER III. Sequel to the Formation of Systematic Descriptive Geology.
Sect. 1.—Reception and Diffusion of Systematic Geology.
Sect. 2.—Application of Systematic Geology. Geological Surveys and Maps.
Sect. 3.—Geological Nomenclature.
Sect. 4.—Geological Synonymy, or Determination of Geological Equivalents.
CHAPTER IV. Attempts to Discover General Laws in Geology.
Sect. 1.—General Geological Phenomena.
Sect. 2.—Transition to Geological Dynamics.
CHAPTER V. Inorganic Geological Dynamics.
Sect. 1.—Necessity and Object of a Science of Geological Dynamics.
Sect. 2.—Aqueous Causes of Change.
Sect. 3.—Igneous Causes of Change.—Motions of the Earth’s Surface.
Sect. 4.—The Doctrine of Central Heat.
Sect. 5.—Problems respecting Elevations and Crystalline Forces.
Sect. 6.—Theories of Changes of Climate.
CHAPTER VI. Progress of the Geological Dynamics of Organized Beings.
Sect. 1.—Objects of this Science.
Sect. 2.—Geography of Plants and Animals.
Sect. 3.—Question of the Transmutation of Species.
Sect. 4.—Hypothesis of Progressive Tendencies.
Sect. 5.—Question of Creation as related to Science.
Sect. 6.—The Hypothesis of the regular Creation and Extinction of Species.
Sect. 7.—The Imbedding of Organic Remains.
CHAPTER VII. Progress of Physical Geology.
Sect. 1.—Object and Distinctions of Physical Geology.
Sect. 2.—Of Fanciful Geological Opinions.
Sect. 3.—Of Premature Geological Theories.
CHAPTER VIII. The Two Antagonist Doctrines of Geology.
Sect. 1.—Of the Doctrine of Geological Catastrophes.
Sect. 2.—Of the Doctrine of Geological Uniformity.
ADDITIONS TO THE THIRD EDITION.
BOOK VIII. ACOUSTICS.
CHAPTER III. Sound.
The Velocity of Sound in Water.
BOOK IX.
Photography.
Fluorescence.
CHAPTER XIII. Undulatory Theory.
Direction of the Transverse Vibrations in Polarization.
Final Disproof of the Emission Theory.
BOOK X.
CHAPTER III. The Relation of Vapour and Air.
Sect. 4.—Force of Steam.
Sect. 5.—Temperature of the Atmosphere.
CHAPTER IV. Theories of Heat.
The Dynamical Theory of Heat.
BOOK XI.
GENERAL REMARKS.
Dr. Faraday’s Views of Statical Electric Induction.
BOOK XII.
Recent Progress of Terrestrial Magnetism.
Correction of Ship’s Compasses.
BOOK XIII.
CHAPTER VII. Magneto-electric Induction.
Magneto-optic Effects and Magnecrystallic Polarity.
Magneto-electric Machines.
Applications of Electrodynamic Discoveries.
BOOK XIV.
CHAPTER IX. The Electro-chemical Theory.
The Number of Elementary Substances.
BOOK XV.
1. Crystallography.
2. Optical Properties of Minerals.
3. Classification of Minerals.
BOOK XVI.
BOTANY.
ZOOLOGY.
BOOK XVII.
Vegetable Morphology.
Morphology in Linnæus.
CHAPTER VII. Animal Morphology.
Final Causes
BOOK XVIII.
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